More biblical plays and a morality play; Everyman and Medieval Miracle Plays(11-16), Various Unknown

 Why you might read the Miracle Plays

The Miracle plays are a snapshot of how Medieval England saw the stories of the Bible.  I am just reading a collection of them rather than each version. This makes them great to compare how Christianity was understood across time, even if they are not directly about doctrine. The Everyman Play expands this to include how Medieval England saw salvation and the death of the Christian.

For my Self Education project, they fill this role. They allow for a greater understanding of the way in which faith was a part of everyday life in medieval England. This will be important when I get to read more of the church fathers. As a narrative, they show a stage in the development of the play in the English speaking world.

Stories of the Miracle Plays(11-16)

The Crucifixion

This play covers the soldiers at the crucifixion. Their dialogue as they nail Christ to the cross and lift the cross into its position is most of the content of the play. There is the occasional interlude of Christ speaking, though it is to God not to the soldiers. 

The Harrowing of Hell

This starts with a group introducing themselves in hell. This includes people like Adam and David. Then Satan skites that Jesus is coming to hell. When Jesus arrives however he opens the gates and rescues those we have been introduced to. 

The next scene is in heaven. We are introduced to those who have never been to hell like Elijah and the thief on the cross.

The final scene is back in hell as Satan reestablishes control and welcomes new sinners.

The Resurrection

The play starts with a devout centurion telling Pilate and the head priests that Jesus will rise from the dead. Pilate and company then decide to have the tomb guarded. They send 4 soldiers to guard the tomb. But they fall asleep. Some women of Jesus' followers come to see the body but it is gone. An angel appears to them and tells them he has risen and is gone. 

The soldiers see the empty tomb and decide to tel pilate and the head priests that he rose. The priests pay them to say they were overwhelmed by force and the body stolen.

The Judgement

The play starts with God laying out human creation and fall, as well as redemption through Christ. The angels then go out with trumpets to start the judgement and raise the dead. the devils prepare for more people. Christ sits in judgment and separates the good from the bad. The play paraphrases Christ's comments. These comments are around when I was in need you feed me, clothed me etc. For the Good, he sends them on to eternal bliss and for the Bad, he sends them to hell. 

Everyman

The everyman play starts with Death visiting Everyman. He tells him he has come to his time of reckoning. He laments this and turns to his friends but they desert him. He tries again with his family but they also desert him. He tries his goods but they cannot be taken with him. He turns to good deeds but she is sick. she calls knowledge to him and he takes Everyman to confession. After confession, Good deeds is well and companies him the rest of the way. Knowledge then calls in Beauty, Strength, Discretion and his Five senses to join them. They proceed to the priest for the Lord's supper (communion). Then Everyman comes to his death and Beauty, Strength, Discretion and his five senses all fail him and leave. As does Knowledge and he is left with Good Deeds. He is taken to Jesus in heaven for his accounting.

The Death of Pilate

This Apocraphyal play covers Pilates death at the hands of a converted Tiberius Caesar. The Emperor is sick with leprosy and sends to Pilate for Jesus. He believes the prophet can heal him. His messenger arrives and Pilate sends him out looking for Jesus. He stumbles upon Veronica who tells him that Jesus is dead. He laments but she tells him that she might be able to heal the Emperor. She expects to do so using a covering that Jesus used. She is taken to the emperor and he is healed. The emperor declares Jesus his Lord. Veronica asks him to take vengeance on Pilate for Jesus death and he agrees. He sends executioners to retrieve Pilate. Once Pilate is in his presence he is rather slippery. But eventually, the Emperor gets his cloak, which was worn by Jesus. He sends him to the dungeon to await trial and death. Before this can happen Pilate kills himself. The emperor orders him buried but the body won't stay in the ground. He then has it cast into the river but the river starts killing people. So he has him taken to sea and cast into the depths. The devil then takes hold of the body and his soul into hell. 

Reflections on the Miracle Plays (11-16)

The Crucifixion

The soldiers in this play seem to spend a lot more time talking. Compared to how much they spend actually at the task of putting Jesus on the cross. The interplays in between them though keep it interesting. One of them even seems to think of himself more as an overseer. 

Jesus' few lines are again more indicative of what was known later than at the time. He speaks of saving the sins of the world. We don't hear about that biblically until after the resurrection. 

The Harrowing of Hell

This entire play is only hinted at in the bible. I found it interesting that the saints of the past were in hell. I had thought that this would have been within the time frame where purgatory was a doctrine of the church. Purgatory was the in-between place where the dead went before the judgement. Rather than straight to hell to be rescued by christ after his death. Purgatory is no longer a doctrine of the church. There was little in the bible that even hinted at it.

The Resurrection

The fact that it is a centurion at the start that warns them that Jesus will rise is interesting. In the bible, they are just aware of this fact without any particular warning. This telling is rather close to the account in the bible. But we do not see Jesus appearing to the women as we do in at least one of the gospels. 

The Judgement

The recap of the history that has led up to this point, allows this play to be stand-alone. Rather than relying on the audiences prior knowledge.

The actual judgment portion fit very well with scripture and is even paraphrasing it closely in places.

Everyman

The random reference to Jupiter in the middle of the play was a little surprising. To find a god's names from the Roman pantheon used to describe the Christian God was just strange.

It was interesting how his goods did not just desert him but also admitted that they had distracted him from God. While he was still living he loved them more than God. This is the only specifics of his sins that is gone into in the play. For the rest of the play, he just refers to his sins as a whole.

The Death of Pilate

At the very end of the play, three devils discuss the body and soul of Pilate. These are named Beelzebub, Satan and Lucifer. This is interesting because these are generally accepted as three different names of the same being. Rather than as three devils.

In the real world, Tiberius was never a follower of Jesus and instead was the predecessor to Caligula. Caligula was one of the persecuting emperors.

What others have to say about the Miracle Plays(11-16)

From Britannica about Everyman "this short play (about 900 lines) is more than an allegorical sermon because vivid characterization gives it dramatic energy"

From York Mystery plays about The judgement. "This was both an act of worship and ‘community theatre’ for the entertainment of locals and visitors alike, honouring God,"

Comparisons to other texts

Four of six of the plays are based around the Christian Bible. They carry in how close to the biblical account they come. One is almost exact while another is very much an interpolation of the text.

Everyman is rather different from all the other Miracle plays. For starters, it is a morality play rather than a biblical one. Also, it is a lot longer than the other plays. Everyman is more about how the Christian lives their life and comes to judgment. This contrasts with the biblical stories of the other plays.

Conclusion

The Medieval miracle plays take us on a journey through the Christian Bible. In doing so they often take liberties and interpolate extra content into the narrative. They have a tendency to be written with current knowledge in mind rather than thinking about what the characters would have known. This leads to some odd statements about Christ before he is even born from characters such as Moses.

The Everyman play is different both in its content and its length. It deals with more of how Christians should live and how they receive salvation through the sacraments.

Have you read The Miracle Plays? If so what did you think of it? 

 
Want to read The Miracle Plays but haven't? Please leave me a comment and let me know why you want to read it.

Hopefully, this post inspires you to take the time to look into it on your own journey of Self Education.

Get a copy of The Miracle Plays.

More plays from the Bible; Everyman and Medieval Miracle Plays(6-10), Various Unknown

 Why might you read the Miracle Plays?

The Miracle plays are a snapshot of how Medieval England saw the stories of the Bible.  I am just reading a collection of them rather than each version. This makes them great to compare how Christianity was understood across time, even if they are not directly about doctrine. 

For my Self Education project, they fill this role. They allow for a greater understanding of the way in which faith was a part of everyday life in medieval England. This will be important when I get to read more of the church fathers. As a narrative, they show a stage in the development of the play in the English speaking world.

Stories of the Miracle plays 6-10

Abraham and Issac

The play starts with Abraham praying for Issac his young son. We then see Issac also praying. There is a short scene in heaven where God tells his angels he will test Abraham. the test is to see whether he loves God or his son more.

Angels are then sent to instruct Abraham to go to the mountain and sacrifice Issac. While he prays it isn't so he complies. He takes Issac with wood for the fire up to the mountain.

Issac finds out he is to be the sacrifice and starts pleading with his father for his life. Abraham tells him he has been instructed by God to sacrifice him. Issac accepts his fate. Abraham dithers over doing the deed but eventually swings for the kill. He is stopped by an angel and is relieved. Issac asks why he has stopped and Abraham explains.

They sacrifice the ram God has arranged and descend the mountain praising God.

The Annunciation

The play opens with a Paraphrase of Isaiah's prophecy of the messiah. It continues with Mary being told she will have a child. And her marvelling about not having been with a man. And that the child would be from the holy spirit.

She then tells Joseph she's pregnant and he knows its not his. He will not listen and storms out. He is told by an angel and comes back home to Mary. The play finishes with them on the road to Bethlehem.

The Second Shepherds' Pagent

This play starts with the shepherds lamenting there state in life and lack of warm clothes. They are then joined by a man who is known to them. While they sleep he steals a sheep. He returns before they wake and bids them farewell. 

They then find there is a sheep missing and go to confront him in his house. They find him with his bedridden wife and are told she just gave birth. They go to leave as they cannot find any sign of the sheep. As they go to leave they realise they haven't seen the baby and given it gifts so they return and try and do so. When they do they see their sheep instead of a baby.

The shepherds return to the fields for another night. They meet an angel who tells them of Jesus birth in Bethlehem. So they go and visit the child and glorify him on arrival.

Herod the Great

The play starts with a messenger singing the praises of Herod. Herod enters and is angry that the wise men have gone without telling him who the child is. The child who will be king. So he ascertains the child approximate age. He then sends out his knights to kill every male child under the age of 2. When they return he rewards them well.

The Woman taken in Adultery

At the beginning we see a scribe and a Pharisee discussing Jesus. They focus on how to trap him into hypocrisy. They do so by presenting him with a woman caught in adultery. If he says kill he is a hypocrite because he has been preaching mercy. If he sends her away they have him breaking the law of Moses. Instead, he asks the man without sin to throw the stones. The men each leave bemoaning their sins. The woman then asks Jesus about it and he says she is free to go. She magnifies God for his mercy. 

Reflections on the Miracle plays 6-10

Abraham and Issac

Issac being described as Abrahams young son for this play. In the Bible, he is not described as such and it is common to describe him as full-grown today.

The play also adds Issac knowing he is to be sacrificed and accepting that. Again this is an extrapolation from the biblical text.

It is interesting to see Abraham dithering so much about the sacrifice. It brings some humanity to the story.

The Annunciation

It finishes in a rather interesting place, with them on the road. I would have expected it would either not add that part or go all the way to the birth of Jesus.

The play tells the story more like Mary and Joseph are already married and living together. Rather than being engaged like the Bible story. 

The Second Shepherds' Pagent

This play spends most of its time in the arguments between the shepherds and the stolen sheep. The visiting angel and baby Jesus take second best. This is interesting because it is a large departure from just a scriptural tale.

The missing sheep bit doesn't really end. They find the sheep but there is no talk of taking it back or of punishing the thief.

Herod the Great

Herod would not have had knights but rather warriors. Seems a bit nitpicky but knights were a thing of the middle ages. I must remember though that in the middle ages the idea that the past was different from now had not yet occurred to the scholars much less the laity.

Also, the messenger in the start makes Herod out to be larger and more powerful than he really was. His renowned would not have gone out to Syria and Greece.

The Woman taken in Adultery

It is interesting that the scribe and Pharisee both call him Jesu. We would now call him Jesus. The Editor calls him Jesus in the notes and when named as speaking. 

The plotting of the Pharisee is seen explicitly in the play. By comparison, the bible text just says they wanted to test him.

What others have to say about the Miracle plays 6-10

About Abraham and Issac enotes says "This miracle play does not specify where Abraham lives, apart from his early statement that he understands his home to be a gift from God."

Comparisons to other texts

In the earlier Miracle Plays, we see many things said that would only be true post the early church. Things like praying to the saints or referencing Christ. This was done in plays based on the old testament. In these Miracle plays this is still happening, though it is a little less jarring.

Compared to the Bible these stories have all been embellished. This is not necessarily a bad thing. But we do see one play go off on a tangent and be more about the tangent than the bible story. 

Conclusion

These plays have covered both old and new testament stories. These have ranged from Abraham and Issac to Jesus' ministry.  We have looked at how there are odd references that are out of their time. This is especially true in the old testament stories. Finally, they have said fairly true to the Biblical accounts but have added details. In one case this goes a little astray but it comes back to the point eventually.

Have you read The Miracle Plays? If so what did you think of it? 

 
Want to read The Miracle Plays but haven't? Please leave me a comment and let me know why you want to read it.

Hopefully, this post inspires you to take the time to look into it on your own journey of Self Education.

Get a copy of The Miracle Plays.

Biblical Stories as plays; Everyman and Medieval Miracle Plays (1-5), Various Unknown

Why you might read the Miracle Plays?

The Miracle plays are a snapshot of how Medieval England saw the stories of the Bible. They were not produced by the church but rather were put on by the local guilds, for example, the shipwrights guild. They were common across England with slight variations. I am just reading a collection of them rather than each version. This makes them great to compare how Christianity was understood across time, even if they are not directly about doctrine.

For my Self Education project, they fill this role. They allow for a greater understanding of the way in which faith was a part of everyday life in medieval England. This will be important when I get to read more of the church fathers. As a narrative, it shows the development of the play in the English speaking world.

Stories of the Miracle Plays 1-5

The creation, and the fall of Lucifer

This play covers who God is and his creative power. It focuses on the creation of the angles. Specifically the creation of Lucifer as Gods second in charge. Lucifer becomes conceited with his beauty and greatness. He oversteps the line and asks to be worshipped alongside God. At this moment he is thrown out of heaven and into hell. We then see him lamenting his new position with another devil. The scene then moves back from heaven as the heavenly host work out how to work without Lucifer as a guide. They turn toward God and he is worshipped.

The creation of Adam and Eve

This play covers again God and his creative power. This time as God creates man. He commands the earth to make a form of a man. Then takes his rib and forms woman. Then finally tells breath to make them alive. This play ends with the man and woman, being named Adam and Eve. They then worship God.

The fall of Man

This play covers the deception of Eve by the serpent. The play does designate the serpent as Satan. The serpent uses the line of eating this will make you like God. First, though he spends some time running down what God had said. It is the make you like God that convinces Eve. She then goes on to convince Adam who eats as well. He instantly laments what he has done and states that he is naked. They resolve to sew together fig leaves for coverings. When God comes to the garden they hide. When God finds out what they have done, he curses them and has the angles throw them out of paradise.

Cain and Abel

This play covers the sacrifices made by Cain and Abel. As well as the Slaying of Abel by Cain. It starts by detailing how Adam asks the two brothers to make sacrifices. It has Abel explaining why he gave his best and can explaining why he gave his worst. This is missing in the Bible account. God accepts Abel offering but not Cains. Cain is angry at this and slays his brother. God asks Cain where his brother is and he complains he is not his brother's keeper. God knows what Cain has done and drives him away and curses him as punishment.

Noah's Flood

This play covers from Noah being told to build the ark, to Noah being told to go forth and multiply. Noah's family is present when he is told to build the ark. Together they build the Ark and house the animals. The ark has a mast in this account but does not in the Bible. Once everything is set his wife refuses to get on the ark but eventually is persuaded and just in time. They are on the ark 40 days and then Noah releases both a raven and a dove. He does this only once unlike the account in the Bible. The dove returns with an olive leaf and Noah and his family get out of the Ark. God then promises to never flood the world again. He also gives the rainbow as a sign.

Reflections on the Miracle Plays 1-5

The Creation, and the fall of Lucifer

This is a story that is only alluded to in the Christian bible. So the specific details while in line with what we know are fabrications. That being said it is all in line with the bible accounts.

The focus on the greatness of God is to be expected in this work. that being said it is interesting how much time is taken just to glorify him. 

The portrayal of Lucifer is interesting. You do not see any of the sinister action and working directly against God. Those actions are attributed to Lucifer later in the narrative in the bible.

The creation of Adam and Eve

This story mashes together the creation of Adam and Eve. In the Christian bible, there is some time between Mans creation and woman. Other than that it sticks to known facts and even contains the dominion given to man over the animals.

The fall of Man

Satans line to Eve that she will be like God is pretty standard for this narrative. But this play takes it a little further and he tells her they will be like gods and worshipped. It's the worshipped part that is an additive here. Here we start to see Satan or Lucifer being more deceitful and conniving.

Cain and Abel

This play again expands on the story as it is given in the Bible. It is interesting to see how people interpreted why Cains sacrifice was unacceptable. The version given is the most likely but it is not something the Bible is specific about.

The start of the play also adds Adam emploring his sons to give sacrifices. This is an interesting interpretation. It could have been at Adams prompting or it could have been at Gods promoting. Again the Bible does not say.

Noah's Flood

Having Noah's wife be rather cantankerous is quite a change. There is no mention of her behaviour in the Bible. It is interesting to see that at least in Medieval England there was this version of her.

It is almost off-putting to see Noah reference Christ and the Apostles. He could not know of them as their place is much later in the timeline.

What others have to say about the Miracle Plays

From Mr Donn "During Medieval times most plays were religious and were used to teach people about the Bible, the lives of saints, or how to live your life the right way."

From Brittanica "By the 13th century they had become vernacularized and filled with unecclesiastical elements. They had been divorced from church services and were performed at public festivals"

Comparisons with other texts

The Main comparison here is with the Bible. I have noted some of this in the discussion and summary of the stories.

Generally, the Plays take the story and embellish it. In most cases, these seem logical and are nice additions to the narrative. But the addition of an almost rebellious wife to the Noah story seems a bit out of place. Noah and his family are chosen because of their righteousness so it makes no sense that she would not obey her husband.

Conclusion

The stories so far have been from Genesis in the Bible. They tend to be embellishments of the stories. They have covered The fall of Lucifer, the creation and fall of man. As well as the first murder and the great flood. This is not the end of the collection. Rather it is the start and there will be two more posts on these miracle plays as well as the everyman play.

Have you read The Miracle Plays? If so what did you think of it? 

 
Want to read The Miracle Plays but haven't? Please leave me a comment and let me know why you want to read it.

Hopefully, this post inspires you to take the time to look into it on your own journey of Self Education.

Get a copy of The Miracle Plays.

Another telling of Sigurd; The Volsung Saga.

Why might you read the Volsung Saga?

The Volsung saga is the full story of the family of Volsung. Though we do see some of the stories in the Edda. It exists to show the movement of the Northern families into the Germanic area and becoming the Germanic tribes. As such it is the myth that links the two people groups. It is worth noting that this was written in Icelandic.

It is in my Self Education project because of this link between the nordic and germanic tribes. Also because it is the prehistory of the germanic people and being English by decent some of my heritage is therefore Anglo-Saxon. These are both germanic tribes. This makes this part of the legacy of my past as well as that of a large chunk of Europe.

The Story of The Volsung Saga

Odin Guides Sigi from the otherworld:

Sigi is exiled for murder. Odin leads Sigi out into new lands far away and Sigi establishes himself as king of Hunland. Here he married and had a son named Rerir. His brothers in law killed him but his son retook the kingdom. Rerir cannot have children so he prays to the gods. Odin sends him an apple and he eats it with his wife and produces a child.

The queen was pregnant for six years. She decides it will kill her and asks for the child to be cut out of her. The child is already well grown when he was delivered. He is named Volsung and grew to be a great king. He married the daughter of Hrimnir, a giant. They had ten sons and one daughter. The eldest was Sigmund and his twin sister was Signy. King Volsung builds Barnstock with a great tree in its centre.

Sigmund draws the sword from Barnstock

King Siggeir comes to king Volsung wanting to arrange a marriage for his son. King Volsung agrees but his daughter, Signy is unhappy. Volsung makes the marriage feast and Signy is married to Siggeir's son.

An old wanderer enters the feast. He strikes the tree with the blade and buries it deep. He announces whoever pulls it out can have it and then he leaves. Many of the men try to pull out the sword but none succeed until Sigmund tries his hand and it comes out easily. King Siggeir tries to buy it off Sigmund but he refuses and Siggeir takes offence. Siggeir takes his wife and leaves the next day. He invites Volsung to come to a feast. 

The fall of Volsung

King Volsung goes to the kingdom of Gautland at the appointed time. Signy comes down to meet him and tells him that her husband has an army to meet them and kill them. Volsung refuses to run away and in the morning forms up his men fully armed. Volsung is killed and his ten sons are captured.

Signy convinces her husband to put the brothers in stocks instead of killing them and he agrees. The brothers are chained to a large log and left in the woods. Every night a she-wolf comes and devours one of them. This goes on for nine nights until only Sigmund is left. Signy sends Sigmund honey to smear on his face and in his mouth. When the wolf came she licked up the honey. When she put her tongue in Sigmund's mouth he bit down and would not let go. He ripped out her tongue and she died.

In the process of killing the wolf, Sigmund broke free of his bonds. He stayed in the woods and see himself up an underground hiding place. Signy bought him all he needed. King Siggeir, however, thought that all the Volsungs were dead.

Signy had two sons by Siggeir but they were weak. They are not fit for taking revenge.

Signy gives birth to Sinfjotli

Signy then swaps places with a sorceress and goes and sleeps with her brother in secret. They conceive a son and when he is of age she sends him to Sigmund. Sigmund asks him to bake bread when there is something living in the flour. Sinfjotli kneads it into the bread. Sigmund is impressed as it was a poisonous snake and tells the boy not to eat it.

Sigmund and Sinfjotli take revenge

Sigmund takes Sinfjotli to take vengeance on Siggeir and they sneak into his estate. One of the children spots them and reports them to Siggeir and his wife. Signy brings the children to Sigmund to kill but he refuses, Sinfjotli does it instantly. The two were then overpowered and bound.

The king buried them in a cairn separated by a huge stone. While they were being buried Signy thew in a bale of straw to Sinfjotli. In the straw, he found food and Sigmund's sword. The sword the used first to cut through the stone and then to cut their way out of the cairn.

The two then set the estate on fire. When challenged by the king as to who they are they replied they were Volsungs. Signy comes out of the fire to talk to her brother and reveal the parentage of Sinfjotli. But she returns to the fire to die with her husband.

Sigmund marries Hjordis

Sigmund hears of the Daughter of Eylimi and goes to his estate to try and secure marriage. King Lyngvi is also there trying to win her hand. Eylimi asks his daughter what she wants. She says she will have the well renowned Sigmund.

King Lyngvi went away and gathered an army and invaded. King Sigmund took out his army. He was killed in the action after his sword was broken by Odin.

The Birth of Sigurd

Hjordis gives birth to Sigmund's son, who is named Sigurd. Sigurd is bought up a foster father Regin. Regin the tells Sigurd about the serpent Fafnir and the gold and tries to get him to go and fight the wurm. He tells about how Odin and Loki killed his brother Otter and paid a gold price for his life. Then his brother Fafnir killed his father and took the gold. 

Regin fashions Gram

Before Sigurd will take on the serpent he makes Regin make him a sword. The first two he breaks on delivery. He then asks his mother for the broken sword of his father and has Regin reforge that. The sword is magnificent.

Sigurd goes to war against those that killed his father. He lands in their lands and lays waste to the countryside. The Kings bring an army out to meet him. He states that he is a Volsung and that he has come for vengeance and slays them.

Regin and Sigurd go after Fafnir

Regin convinces Sigurd to go after Fafnir. They ride out along the path the serpent takes to the water. Regin suggests digging a trench and lying in wait for the serpent. This would allow him to stab him from below. While he was working on the trench an old man with one eye came by and told him to make other trenches as well for the poison. This was Odin and Sigurd follows the advice. The plan works and Sigurd stabs the serpent.

While cooking the heart as Refin has asked, Sigrud has the juice on his hand and licks it. Then he can understand the birds, who give him the advice to kill Regin before Regin kills him. Sigurd cuts of Regin's head and eats half of the heart himself. He then goes and claims the gold from Fafnir's cave.

Sigurd and Brynhild

Sigurd rescues Brynhild from her magical slumber.  She teaches him many things with runes. Brynhild gives Sigurd a raft of advice.

Sigurd rides into Heimei's estate and is welcomed. Brynhild is making a tapestry of Sigurd's battles. He happens to see it and insists on seeing her. They make an Oath to marry.

Concerning King Gjuki and his sons

Sigurd arrives at Gjuki's castle and is welcomed. They want him to stay but he is constantly talking of Brynhild. Grimhild the queen brewed a forgetfulness blend and serves it to Sigurd. Sigurd forgets Brynhild. He then pledges brotherhood with the sons of Gjuki and marries their sister. Gunnar, one of the brothers comes to Sigurd and asks him to help him secure Brynhild as a wife. Sigurd and Gunnar head to King Budli, Brynhild's father. They ask him for her hand but are told she will only take the one who rides through the fire. Gunnar tries to ride through the fire both on his horse and on Sigurd's but they both balk. So Sigurd and Gunnar change places with magic and Sigurd does the deed. He tells her he is Gunnar and she consents to marry him. When the marriage feast ends Sigurd finally remembers Brynhild and his oath.

Dispute of the Queens, Brynhild and Gudrun

Brynhild and Gudrun squabble over who has the best husband. Gudrun reveals that it was not Gunnar who went through the fire but rather Sigurd. Brynhild is so grieved that she convinces Gunnar to kill Sigurd. Gunnar and his brother decide to make their younger brother do it as he is not pledged to Sigurd. Guttorm, the younger brother tries to enter Sigurds room while he is asleep. The third time Sigurd does not wake until Guttorm struck him. When he wakes wounded, he flings his sword Gram after the fleeing brother and catches him in the doorway. His sword cuts him in two. Brynhild cannot live with this and kills herself with a sword. Brynhild requests that she share a funeral pyre with Sigurd.

The Disappearance of Gudrun

Gudrun disappears and spends her time in Denmark. Her family find her and marry her off to king Atli against her wishes. King Atli schemes against her brothers to secure Sigurds gold for himself.

Gudrun carves runes on a ring and sends it with the messenger that Atli sends to her brothers. He is inviting them to feast with him but it is a trap. Gudrun's message is for them not to come but it is intercepted by the messenger and the runes changed.

The brothers set out for Atli, though everyone is telling them not to go.

The battle in the fortress and the victory

They arrive at king Atli's hall and are instantly attacked. They slay many of Atli's champions. The brothers continue to fight even though all of their men have fallen. They are then overpowered and captured. Hogni's heart is cut out and shown to Gunnar. This only makes him more resolute not to tell Atli where the treasure is. Eventually, Gunnar is killed by an adder.

Gudrun kills her sons and feeds them to Atli. She does this as revenge for killing her brothers. She and Hgoni's son kill Atli in his bed. 

Concerning Gudrun

Gudrun takes herself into the sea and instead of being killed is swept to the fortress of King Jonakr. Here she is married to the king and they bring up Svanhild, Sigurd daughter.

Svanhild is married off. She is promised to an older King but his son is the one to fetch her. One of the ambassadors tells the King that Svanhild and his son have been lovers and the king has them both killed. Svanhild is trampled to death by horses.

Gudrun Urges her sons to avenge Svanhild

Gudrun's sons by Jonakr come to an age when they can go to war. Gudrun urges them to go to Jormunrek and avenge their half-sister. The son's of Gudrun were warned that they needed to stay as a team cryptically. Instead of taking that advice two of them get angry with the third and kill him. When they arrive to take vengeance one takes off both hands and the other takes off both legs. It is then they realise that if they still had the third he would have taken of the head and they would have prevailed. They were instead captured and then stoned to death.

Reflections of The Volsung Saga

The whole story of the family of Volsung from start to end has a lot of twists and turns. It starts with banishment from the Nordic countries and ends in the Germanic lands. It is interesting that the family is named for someone in the middle of the line rather than a founder. There is less positive to say about Sigi, though, as he was prone to jealousy. Volsung himself on the other hand has a fortunate and fantastical birth. Most of the saga encompasses Sigmund and especially Sigurd. They both have more time devoted to them in the text because there are more stories about them. Both are dealt with in more granular detail than the one that came before. It is also interesting how quickly it becomes he was the very epitome of a Volsung. Even when Volsungs deeds, while we are told they are great, are not detailed in the text.

Brynhild's descent into suicide is interesting. She starts with not even wanting to make the vow with Sigurd, to making the vow. When she marries another who supposedly succeeded in her test, she is happy until she finds he did not do the deed. At this point her whole persona shifts to despair. This is where things get odd though. First, she plots to have her love killed, I think because he tricked her. Then once he is dead she wants to be dead with him. This seems strange as she has caused his death and she does not seem to be repentant for that. Rather she just decides to die with him. Maybe there is something about honour culture in the time that makes sense of it, but as a modern reader, I can't quite grasp it.

The line keeps improving generation on generation, which is rather interesting. We see the line improving until it dies out. This has the effect of keeping the mythic time separate from the time of writing. It allows for there to no longer be heroes about and yet to have this incline in greatness.

What others have to say about The Volsung Saga

Encyclopedia Britannica says The "Vǫlsunga saga, (Icelandic: “Saga of the Volsungs”) most important of the Icelandic sagas called fornaldarsǫgur (“sagas of antiquity”). Dating from roughly 1270."

"Völsunga Saga (Volsunga Saga or Volsungasaga) was the story of love and betrayal, adventure and tragedy, expanding over several generations, began with the son of Odin named Sigi."  Is how Timeless Myths summarises the opening.

Comparisons with other texts

Here we must start with the Edda as the similarities are profound. Both tell the story of Sigmund through to Sigurd. But the Edda tells the story of Otter's ransom as a current tale and in the Volsung Saga is retold by one of the brothers. The Volsung Saga also tells the story of the family before it intersects with Fafnir the Wurm. As such The Volsung Saga is a more complete retelling of the family. Whereas the Edda only covers what is relevant to the Aesir. We can easily conclude that one was used as a source for the other.

If compare Greek Mythology in general with The Volsung saga, we see a difference in understanding of why there aren't great men anymore. We see this referenced especially in Theogony where the decay of the quality of men is specifically discussed. The Greeks saw the slow degradation of man as the reason there were no longer such great heroes. By comparison, the Volsung saga has the men getting better every generation until the line dies out. This I have gone into more detail with above.

Conclusion

The Volsung saga is the story of the family of Volsung. Volsung comes in the middle of the family tree. The line eventually dies out with the daughter of Sigurd. The great feats that they achieved are given in detail, as well as the alliances they married into. In the end, Sigurd's duplicity, in the form of helping his adopted brother, is his downfall. It gives an important Mythical link between the Nordic and Germanic peoples. We see part of this story in the Edda but not in as much detail. Finally, we have looked at how the view of the heroic past differed between this work and the Greek Plays.

Have you read The Volsung Saga? If so what did you think of it? 
 
Want to read The Volsung Saga but haven't? Please leave me a comment and let me know why you want to read it.

Hopefully, this post inspires you to take the time to look into it on your own journey of Self Education.

Get a copy of the Volsung Saga.

Stories of the Aesir and great Kings; The Edda - Skaldskaparmal, Snorri

 

Why you might read The Edda -Skaldskaparmal

The Edda is the first work in which we see the Aesir or the Gods of the Norse pantheon. As such it is an important beginning in the myths and legends of the Norse people. Given the raiding of the Norse, it is part of the history of large parts of European peoples. Whether they acknowledge that or not is another thing entirely. The Skaldskaparmal continues these stories in its first section. In its second section, it gives us insight into how to understand the poetry of the same time period.

For my Self Education, it is important for me to gain a wide range of cultural and spiritual backgrounds. Even if those are widely now regarded as mythology. The insights into the ancient Norse religion is a great addition to the collection. It is also interesting to see the ways in which poetry is playing with words. This does not seem to change around the world. How exactly you play with words though does change from culture to culture.

The Story

Aegir goes to Asgard and Bragi tells him stories of the Aesir and kings:

Odin, Loki and Hoenir we travelling in the woods and had found no food until they found an Ox. When they tried to cook it would not cook. So an Eagle said to them if they let it eat what it wanted it would make sure it cooked. The eagle ate the choicest parts. Loki got angry and hit it with a stick. The stick get stuck and the Eagle dragged Loki around. Until he made an oath to get Idunn and her apples of youth out of Asgard. Loki does as he had pledged and Idunn is taken away by the giant that was the eagle. Without Idunn's apples the Aesir age. After a while, they realise the last place Idunn was seen was with Loki. They threaten to torture Loki but he tells them where she is. He says he will go and get her if Freyja would lend him her falcon shape. He heads out to giant land as a falcon and gets to where Idunn is being held. Luck has it that the giant is out fishing. So Loki turns Idunn into an acorn and flies her back to Asgard, but the giant notices and chases after him. As they approach Asgard the Aesir set up large piles of wood. Once Loki and Idunn are safe they light the wood. The eagle is going so fast he ends up in the fires and dies. 

The giant's daughter comes to seek vengeance. The Aesir convince her to take compensation instead. This compensation is in the form of marriage to one of the Aesir chosen by only his feet and if they can make her laugh. The first she chooses Njord to marry. She chooses Loki to make her laugh. Loki ties a rope between his privates and a goatsbeard and they have a tug of war, which in the end makes her laugh.

The gods were at war with the Vanir. A peace was procured by them all spitting in a bowl, the Aesir kept this and from it made a man Kvasir. He was a man of great knowledge and travelled the world. He travelled until some dwarves killed him and collected his blood. They then mixed the blood with honey and made a mead that makes everyone who drinks it a poet and a scholar. The dwarves then kill some giants. When the son of the giants comes for vengeance they buy the peace with their mead. Odin wants to get his hands on the mead. So he goes and sees the current owners brother and gets an oath out of him to help him try and get some from the brother. The brother refuses but Odin drills through a mountain. Then turns into a snake. Once inside he sleeps with a woman of the house who gives him a drink of mead for each of the three nights. He consumes it all then flies off back to Asgard and spits it out into the vats the Aesir have produced.

Odin rode into the giant lands. He wagered with a giant about who has the better horse. He then outran the giant's horse but the giant followed him all the way to Asgard. Odin then invited him in to eat and drink, from Thor's bowls, who was away. When the Aesir tire of his boasting they call on Thor who comes and threatens the giant. The giant challenges him to a duel once he is armed. Thor agrees and the day of the duel arrives. Thor kills him but is injured and trapped in under the giant as it falls dead. No one can move in until one of Thor's sons, very young about 3 or 4, comes and moves the giant and lo and behold Thor is not dead. Thor gives his son the dead giants mount in thanks.

Thor heads to Geirrods court. He does so without Mjollnir(his hammer), his belt of strength and iron gloves. He does so because Loki has convinced him to leave them behind. But on the way, he stops the night at Gird's house. She tells him that the giant is tricky and trying to kill him. So she lends him her belt of strength, iron gloves and her weapon, a staff. Thor arrives at Geirrods and is put up in a goat stable with one chair. So he sits on it. He soon realises it is getting closer and closer to the roof so he uses the staff to push on the roof and hears a great crack. The crack was the backs of the trolls two daughters who were under the chair breaking. Then Gerriod called Thor into the hall for a contest. Gerriod grabbed a red hot piece of iron and threw it a Thor. Thor who caught it in his iron gloves and threw it back at Gerriod. Gerriod tried to hide behind a pillar but the rod went right through it and him.

Loki gets one dwarf to make him great things. Then he takes a wager that his brother can't make better things. The price of the bet is Loki's head. The brother makes three items to rival the first brothers three. They then take them to Asgard for the gods to judge and the pronouncement is that the second brother did better. The dwarves then try to take Loki's head. After a while, Loki says you don't have the right to my neck so rather than kill him the sew his mouth shut.

Aegir, a man, holds a feast in the gods at his house, his flours are burnished gold and give light to the whole hall.

Odin, Loki and Hoenir are travelling when they see an otter eating a salmon. Loki kills the otter and retrieves both the otter and the salmon. That night they approach a mans house and give him the otter and the salmon for food for the night. The man called his son and then they set on the Aesir as the otter was their brother. The man makes the otter into a bag and says once it is full of gold and covered in it that will be the ransom paid. Loki leaves to a dwarven hall and takes his gold as a ransom for not killing him. so the Aesir pay the ransom for the otter. the father takes the gold but will give none to his sons, so the sons kill him. Then one brother will not give the other brother any of the gold. So he turns himself into a snake and finds a cave to go and sleep on it in. The other brother travels and goes to Sigurd son of Sigmund. Sigurd's foster father was Volsung, he tells him about the treasure and they travel to go and claim it. Sigurd digs a pit and lays wait in it for the first brother, with his extremely sharp sword, and kills him. Sigurd is to roast the heard of the serpent and give it to the brother. He burns himself while cooking it and sucking on the juices on his hand. He starts to hear the talk of the birds that the living brother is going to betray him so he kills him first. 

Sigurd meets a king names Gjuki. Sigurd marries his daughter Gudrun and swears brotherhood to her brothers. One of the brothers wants to marry. To do so he must ride through flames, which he can't do. He and Sigurd switch bodies and Sigurd does the feat as the brother then switch back. The brother gets to marry the woman. The brother tells his wife about the swap and she was speechless. From then on she urges another brother to kill Sigurd. They wouldn't because of the brotherhood. But a third would and split Sigurd with a sword and they killed his son. Their father then marries Gudrun Sigrurds wife. He kills her brothers, one by cutting out his heart and the other by a snake bite all the way to the liver. But he did not manage to claim their treasure which they had hidden. His wife made the brothers skulls into goblets and gave their roasted heads to her husband to eat. One of the brothers he had killed sons came and killed him while he slept. 

Gudrun throws herself into the sea hoping to drown. She is carried to land and seen by the local king who takes her as his wife. She has three sons. There is a daughter of Sigurd in the land. Another king heard of her beauty and send his son to the first king to get her for himself. The king's advisor though suggests, to the son and the girl, that his son marries the daughter of Sigurd. He also tells the king what happened. The king puts his son to death and thus puts himself in a bad position of being old with no sons. He and his men kill the daughter of Sigurd by trampling her with horses. When Sigurd's wife heard she sent her three sons to avenge her. The sons quibbled on the way. Two killed the third. Then when they killed the king not having the third was their undoing and they died in the process.

Frodi bought peace to the northern countries, where there was no murder or theft. he visited Sweden with a couple of slave women. There was in Sweden a millstone to large to be moved and yet it did what the miller commanded. Frodi sent the slave women to the mill to grind gold, peace and prosperity. They ground out an army to oppose Frodi instead. Mysing arrived by night and killed Frodi and his peace ended. He took the millstones and the women. While on his ship ordered them to grind salt but the sea became salty and they came upon a whirlpool and sank.

Kraki was king in Denmark a young boy gives him that name and he gives him a gold ring as a gift. He went to war with the king of Sweden and send his berserkers to fight. They were victorious but he refused to pay them. He met them in Sweden and the local king gave them false hospitality. He tried to burn them alive but they leapt over the fire and slew those trying to burn them. He was given a horn of gold and told to ride back to his army. He was chased by the king and his men. So he threw out the coins and the army stopped to collect it. The opposing king kept on coming so he threw a gold ring and got the king to grovel like a pig.

One king, Hogni, has his daughter stolen by another king. So Hogni set out with his army but the other king fled by sea so he chased him. they eventually stopped and fought on an island. Every night his daughter would raise the fallen men. So each day they would fight with full armies again. This is the endless fight.

There is a subdivision here in the text as it moves from stories to instructions on how to write poetry:

First is the explanation of the Kenning Structure. How that if one God is named but with the title or description of another. Then it is actually the second god that is being referenced.

Following the gods are listed with their appropriate titles and descriptions. With a slight aside for the story of Heimdall being struck in the head and how now Heimdall's head can refer to a sword. The same list and descriptions are repeated with the Goddesses, Sun, Moon and Sea. Then we move on to the references for men and women. These are a lot more general as there are many people they could refer to. The one I find most interesting is that men can be referred to by masculine trees and women by feminine trees. Gold has its own section but they are mainly the names for gold we have seen in the preceding stories. Battle, weapons and armour have a lot of references to Odin and his Valkyries. Ships is the smallest section with them just being referenced as animals or the ski of the sea kings. References to Christ goes through the traditional Christian title for him. They also add a few place names.

Time is reckoned in months from Harvest to Corn-reaping and there are 15 in total.|

We have a genealogy of the Kings of the northlands in a story-based form.

 Finally, we have alternate names for positions and actions. These include poets being called greppar. Also, the young men who haven't taken possession of a farm being called drengir. 

Reflections on The Edda - Skaldskaparmal

From what I had read about the Edda I had expected this section to be shorter so its length was a nice surprise. The storied start with stories of the gods, mainly Odin and company. They are on various trips out of Asgard before moving on to stories of men. Nearly all the stories include some turn of phrase that the story is the origin for. It is quite interesting that there are so few stories of Thor and so many more of Odin.

I know Loki is a trickster, but tying a rope to his nethers for a laugh is a bit over the top. I guess it did have the desired effect of laughter. It seems like a story that is an affront to the dignity of the gods. But then Loki isn't truly an Aesir so maybe the dignified portrayals do not extend to him. Also, it is fitting that the laugh is at his expense. Since it was his foolishness that created the situation in the first place.

I find the creation method for the mead of poets rather gross. I have definitely heard in other contexts of using spit to seal a deal. Even if today it is mostly a thing kids do, keeping it to make a man is just an odd concept. but brewing mead mixed with that mans blood and then to be spat out by Odin. I wouldn't care how much of a poet it would make me I would not care to drink it.

Thor's son having the strength to move the giant that has fallen on Thor. The giant fell on Thor as he killed it. All other Aesir had failed to move the giant but Thors son succeeds. This shows that his house and hammer is in good hands. We do not know if this is one of the sons of Thor that will survive Ragnarok. But one of them will take up the hammer, as we see in the previous section.

The transition from the stories of the gods to the stories of man happens mid-story. We follow the gold used for the payment for Otter. This leads to Sigurd of the Volsung's killing the serpent who guards the same gold. Which also leads to the brothers of Sigurd's wife hiding the gold in the river where it is lost. It is very smooth and at first, you think it is just where that story leads. The next few stories are also of men, mainly kings, doing great things.

The final three stories are all about kings but they are more compact and singular in nature. The continual battle is the most interesting. Why would the daughter of one king kidnapped by the other want the battle to go on indefinitely? Surely she would want to go home with her father, which would require him to be able to win. It is also interesting that her name means battle as it is what she has made continual by her actions. 

What Others have to say about the Edda - Skaldskaparmal

"But now one thing must be said to young skalds, to such as yearn to attain to the craft of poesy and to increase their store of figures with traditional metaphors;" Says the Honest Modern Heathen

From Function and Relevance of the Kennings "The role that these "higher" or "proper" kennings play within individual poems can be illustrated by looking at the Völuspá of the Poetic Edda."

Comparisons with other texts

The obvious comparison here is of the story of Sigurd seen in the Nibelungenlied. Which relates closely to this part of the Edda. Here we see the origins of the gold and of the serpent that Sigurd kills as well as his untimely end. In the Nibelungenlied, we see a lot more about Sigurd's family. Also their interaction with the world with Sigurd being more of a side story. Whereas here in the Edda, his wife is the main focus. That is once the focus is off the gold. Her life after Sigurd becomes central. The main contents of the Sigurd story are the same between the two works. Though some of the more minor characters names are different the main ones are the same or very similar.

To compare this section with the second section of the Edda. As I previously noted we see a lot more of stories featuring Odin that we did in the second section. Also, we see a lot less of Thor. Though in both cases they travel with Loki and that is the beginning of all the troubles that follow. The characterisation between the two sections is consistent. Even as the style of the story changes slightly. In both sections, we see Thor called back from the giant lands to deal with something in a physical manner. It seems the other gods are perfectly happy to get Thor to do the fighting and killing. 

Conclusion

The third section of the Edda covers some more stories of the Aesir. It also covers Kenning, a poetic device used by the Icelandics and other Norse at the time. Those stories covered more about Odin and less about Thor than we saw in the section before. Some of the stories seemed a bit gross or vulgar to me as a modern reader but that does not diminish their worth. We compared the stories of Sigurd from the Nibelungenlied and found that the Edda gave us more context. 

Have you read the Edda? If so what did you think of it? 

 
Want to read the Edda but haven't? Please leave me a comment and let me know why you want to read it.

Hopefully, this post inspires you to take the time to look into it on your own journey of Self Education.

Get a copy of the Edda